However, every one is welcome to contribute to the topics specified. You can also suggest newer developments for wider discussion.
Objectives :
The main objective of this course is to introduce students to the important theories and approaches in language learning/teaching, especially in the context of second language acquisition. The course has been so designed as to bridge the gap between the theory and practice. Consequently, the focus of this course shall also be on helping a student develop empirical understanding of the problems involved in Bilingualism, especially in Indian context. Apart from this, the students shall be given some understanding of the testing methods, devised exclusively for Indian classrooms.
Prescribed Content :
Unit-1 : Main theories of language learning and their influence on teaching - monitor model, universal grammar, acculturation and interlanguage.
Unit-2 : Approaches and methods in language teaching: Grammar-translation, Audio-lingual, Direct and Bilingual. CLT and the communicative approach, Brief historical overview of ELT.
Unit-3 : Approaches to teaching LSRW, vocabulary, grammar, literature and pronunciation. ELT in India: growth and problematic.
Unit-4 : Testing: Principles, Washback effect and types of tests. Designing tests for the Indian classroom.
Suggested Readings :
1. Tickoo, M.L. Teaching and Learning English, Orient Black Swan, New Delhi, 2003
2. Howatt, A.P.R. and Widdowson, H.G., A History of English Language Teaching, Oxford University Press, China, 2004.
3. Larsen-Freeman, Diane ,Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching , Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2008.
4. Richards, Jack C. and Rodgers, Theodore S., Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press, U.K., 2005.
5. Krishnaswamy, N. and Krishnaswamy, L., The Story of English in India, Foundation Books, New Delhi, 2006.
6. Hughes, Arthur, Testing for Language Teachers , Cambridge University Press, U.K., 2003.
I am able to comment.
ReplyDeleteBest,
Michael
Good list of books. Hopefully we all benifited by this blog.
ReplyDeleteMETHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH
ReplyDelete1) GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD/PRUSSIAN METHOD (IN USA)/ CULTURAL METHOD
FEATURES
1) The mother tongue of the learner and the target language (language which is to be learnt) are used.
2)In this approach reading and writing skills are more stressed.
3)The approach of this method is " Deductive Approach".
4)The meanings are explained using the mother tongue of the learner.
5)With the usage of this method the vocabulary is increased.
6)This method is Teacher Centered.
TECHNIQUES USED
1)Learners are asked to translate a passage from the target language into their mother tongue.
2)Grammar rules are taught and then exercises like( fill in the blanks with prepositions , articles or with tenses ) are given to the learners to make them apply the rules.
3)Set of words are given to the learners and they are asked to find synonyms and antonyms of those words.
DRAWBACKS
1) The spoken aspect and oral communication are neglected.
2)Exact translation sometimes becomes very difficult.
3)This method is difficult to use in multilingual classes(classes where learners have many languages as there first language).
2)DIRECT METHOD
FEATURES
1) Only target language is used.
2)Listening and speech skills are stressed upon.
3)This method is inductive in nature.
4)Pronunciation is emphasized upon.
5)Teaching is done orally using various aids.
6)The role of student is also there in this method. This method is not totally teacher centered.
TECHNIQUES USED
1)Fill in the blanks exercises are given without giving rules.
2)The teacher reads the passage and the learner writes what he has heard.
3)This method is based on situations (shopping) or topics (such as weather, map reading etc).
4)Testing is done both orally and in writing.
DRAWBACKS
1)Not all teachers are fully equipped to use only target language for teaching.
2)It often becomes time consuming and difficult in large class.
NAME - RICHA
CLASS - M.A (II)
ROLL NO - 2
Thanks, Richa.
Deleteyour welcome sir
DeleteMETHODS FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING OF ENGLISH
ReplyDeleteDIRECT METHOD:-
Founded by Francois Gouin, in 1860, he observed hundreds of French students learning a foreign language and concluded that learning a foreign language should be in the same way by which people learn their L1.
It aims to use the target language to communicate with daily words. Grammar is taught inductively, in which students discover the rules.
It’s to make up with the Grammar-Translation Method, which emphasizes reading and writing, fixed rules for sentences patterns, and grammar and translation skills.
So, in DM, no translation, no native language but with meaningful context, r pictures, visual aids, demonstration and dramatization to help students learn words, preposition, grammar of the target language.
PRINCIPLES...:-No translate but demonstrate
Never explain but act
Never make a speech but ask questions
Native speaker to deliver teaching for correct pronunciation, and better oral skills.
Reading aloud:
Take turns reading sections of a passage, play, or whatever teaching materials. The teacher uses gestures, pictures, realia, examples, or other means to make the meaning of the section clear.
Question and answer exercise
Students ask and answer Qs in full sentences and practice new words and grammatical rules.
Self-correction: :
To make students self-corrected by asking them to make a choice between what they said and an alternative answer he supplied;
Or the teacher may repeat a student said, using a questioning tone or to repeat what the students said and stop before the error to signal that something is wrong with students’ answers.
DISADVANTAGE:-Students may be afraid of asking Qs.
It’s hard to practice the methods in a class with more than 20 students. It needs a great amount of teachers
It’s hard to explain abstract words.
It takes much time for teacher to explain the words that might be trivial.
NOW WE WILL INTRODUCE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD WHICH IS USED IN MANY SCHOOLS SPECIALLY WHICH ARE IN RURAL AREAS WHERE THE HELP OF MOTHER TONGUE IS TAKEN WHILE TEACHING ENGLISH
ReplyDeleteIt has been estimated that 60 percent of the world population is multilingual. Latin was the world’s most used language, today, English.
The ultimate objective to be able to read, understand and appreciate written target literature.
Through the study of the grammar of the target language, the students will be more familiar with the grammar of their mother tongue. This familiarity will help them speak and write their native language better.
It was thought that foreign language learning would help students grow intellectually. Language learning is a mental exercise, learning a foreign language is a good mental exercise for students. Learning of the target language and the mother tongue empower students mentally (it was recognized that students would probably never use the target language, but the mental exercise of learning it would be beneficial anyway
The method dominated language teaching from the 1840s to the 1940s (and is still being used in some of today’s classrooms).
The goal of foreign language study is to learn a language in order to read its literature or in order to benefit from the mental discipline and intellectual development that result from foreign language study.
It approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules, followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language.
The first language is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the second language/ foreign language.
Reading and writing are the major focus; little or no systematic attention is paid to speaking and listening (oral language).
Vocabulary selection is based solely on the reading texts used, and words are taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study, and memorization (some aspects are still valid in today’s teaching although the objective is different.
The grammar rules are presented and illustrated, vocabulary items are presented with their translation equivalents.
The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. It is this emphasis on the sentence that is a distinctive feature of the method. Emphasis on the sentence rather than on the text (as earlier approaches) was an attempt to make language learning easier.
Accuracy is emphasized over fluency. This was a prerequisite for passing the increasing number of formal written examinations.
SIR JI THESE ABOVE UPDATES ARE FROM:-
ReplyDeleteRAVINDER KUMAR
M.A 2
This comment has been removed by the author.
ReplyDeleteThese natural language learning principles provided the foundation for what came to be known as the Direct Method, which refers to the most widely known of the natural methods. Enthusiastic supporters of the Direct Method introduced it in France and Germany (it was officially approved in both countries at the turn of the century), and it became widely known in the United States through its use by Sauveur and Maximilian Berlitz in successful commercial language schools. (Berlitz, in fact, never used the term; he referred to the meIn practice it stood for the following principles and procedures:
ReplyDelete1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language.
2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught.
3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught inductively.
5. New teaching points were introduced orally.
6. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.
These principles are seen in the following guidelines for teaching oral language, which are still followed in contemporary Berlitz schools:
Never translate: demonstrate
Never explain: act
Never make a speech: ask questions
Never imitate mistakes: correct
Never speak with single words: use sentences
Never speak too much: make students speak much
Never use the book: use your lesson plan
Never jump around: follow your plan
Never go too fast: keep the pace of the student
Never speak too slowly: speak normally
Never speak too quickly: speak naturally
Never speak too loudly: speak naturally
Never be impatient: take it easythod used in his schools as the Berlitz Method.)
Grammar-translation approach to language learning
ReplyDeleteThe Grammar Translation method embraces a wide range of approaches but, broadly speaking, foreign language study is seen as a mental discipline, the goal of which may be to read literature in its original form or simply to be a form of intellectual development. The basic approach is to analyze and study the grammatical rules of the language, usually in an order roughly matching the traditional order of the grammar of Latin, and then to practise manipulating grammatical structures through the means of translation both into and from the mother tongue.
The method is very much based on the written word and texts are widely in evidence. A typical approach would be to present the rules of a particular item of grammar, illustrate its use by including the item several times in a text, and practise using the item through writing sentences and translating it into the mother tongue. The text is often accompanied by a vocabulary list consisting of new lexical items used in the text together with the mother tongue translation. Accurate use of language items is central to this approach.
Generally speaking, the medium of instruction is the mother tongue, which is used to explain conceptual problems and to discuss the use of a particular grammatical structure. It all sounds rather dull but it can be argued that the Grammar Translation method has over the years had a remarkable success. Millions of people have successfully learnt foreign languages to a high degree of proficiency and, in numerous cases, without any contact whatsoever with native speakers of the language (as was the case in the former Soviet Union, for example).
There are certain types of learner who respond very positively to a grammatical syllabus as it can give them both a set of clear objectives and a clear sense of achievement. Other learners need the security of the mother tongue and the opportunity to relate grammatical structures to mother tongue equivalents. Above all, this type of approach can give learners a basic foundation upon which they can then build their communicative skills.
Applied wholesale of course, it can also be boring for many learners and a quick look at foreign language course books from the 1950s and 1960s, for example, will soon reveal the non-communicative nature of the language used. Using the more enlightened principles of the Communicative Approach, however, and combining these with the systematic approach of Grammar Translation, may well be the perfect combination for many learners. On the one hand they have motivating communicative activities that help to promote their fluency and, on the other, they gradually acquire a sound and accurate basis in the grammar of the language. This combined approach is reflected in many of the EFL course books currently being published and, amongst other things, suggests that the Grammar Translation method, far from being dead, is very much alive and kicking as we enter the 21st century.
Without a sound knowledge of the grammatical basis of the language it can be argued that the learner is in possession of nothing more than a selection of communicative phrases which are perfectly adequate for basic communication but which will be found wanting when the learner is required to perform any kind of sophisticated linguistic task.
Grammar Translation Method:
ReplyDeleteHistory:-
►16th century: Latin no longer the dominant international language of communication.
►Latin = a subject in the school curriculum
►The study of classical Latin and an analysis of its grammar and rhetoric became the model for foreign language study in the 17th and 18th centuries.
►By the 19th century, this approach had become the standard way of studying foreign languages. It was known as “the Prussian Method”. It dominated FLT from the 1840s to the 1940s.
►It was originally used to teach 'dead' languages and literatures such as Latin and Greek
►It is still used in situations where understanding literary texts is the primary focus of foreign language study and there is little need for a speaking knowledge of the language.
►This approach was based on the thought that mental discipline was essential for strengthening the powers of the mind.
Characteristics:
-The Grammar-Translation Method was called Classical Method.
-Focus on learning the grammar rules and vocabulary of the target language in order to read literature in the target language
-A fundamental goal for students is to be able to translate one language into the other
-The main skills to the developed are reading and writing.
Classes are teacher-centered
-Grammar is taught deductively
-Memorization of grammar rules, grammatical paradigms and vocabulary
-The sentence is the basic unit of teaching and language practice. Much of the lesson is devoted to translating sentences into and out of the target language, and it is this focus on the sentence that is a distinctive feature of the method.
Accuracy is emphasized
-The student's native language is the medium of instruction. It is used to explain new items and to enable comparisons to be made between the foreign language and the student's native language
-The Grammar-Translation Method was called Classical Method.
Problems with this Method:
-It is an unnatural method.
-Speech is neglected.
-Exact translation is not possible.
-Lack of communication ability
-Students learn about and are familiar with the forms of the target language but only in reading and writing
-Students lack the ability of listening and speaking in the target language
Gagandeep Singh
MA II
RIE,32C, Chandigarh.
DIRECT METHOD:
ReplyDelete-The Direct Method was the outcome of a reaction against the Grammar Translation Method
-It was based on the assumption that the learner of a foreign language should think directly in the target language
-According to this method, English is taught through English.
-The learner learns the target language through discussion, conversation and reading in the second language
-It does not take recourse to translation and foreign grammar
-The first verses are taught while pointing to objects or pictures or by performing actions
The principles of Direct Method:
. Translation in every shape or form is banished from the classroom including the use of the mother tongue and that of the bilingual dictionary.
2. Grammar, when it is taught, is taught inductively.
3. Oral teaching precedes any form of reading and writing.
4. The use of disconnected sentences is replaced by the use of connected texts.
5.Pronunciation is taught systematically in accordance with the principles of phonetics and phonology of the target language.
6. The meanings of words and forms are taught by means of object or natural context.
7. The vocabulary and structure of the language are inculcated to a large extent by the teacher and answered by students.
Teaching Strategies:
1. Oral Training
2. Prohibition of the Mother Tongue
3. Sentence is the Unit of Speech
4. Inductive Teaching of Grammar
Advantages:
1. It is a natural method.
2. No gap between active and passive vocabulary.
3. This method is based on sound principles of education.
Defects:
1.Successful in private language schools (small classes, individual attention and intensive study)
2.Overemphasized the similarities between First Language Learning and Second Language Learning .
3. Required native speakers as teachers
4.Its success depended on teacher’s skill and personality more than on the methodology
itself.
Gagandeep Singh
MA II
RIE,32C, Chandigarh.
METHODS OF TEACHING LANGUAGE
ReplyDelete(a) DIRECT METHOD
CHARACTERISTICS
1. MEDIUM IS ORAL.
2. STUDENTS LISTEN AND REPEAT WORDS SENTENCES.
3. MORE ACTIVE AND LIVELY ENVIRONMENT IN CLASS.
4. PRONUNCIATION GETS IMPROVED.
5 INDUCTIVE APPROACH.
DRAWBACKS
1. DIFFICULT IN LARGE CLASSES.
2. DIFFICULT TO DEFINE ABSTRACT WORDS.
3. MORE NOISE IN CLASS.
(b) GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
Characteristics.
1.Use of the mother tongue learner and the target language
2.Reading and writing skills are more emphasized.
3." Deductive Approach".
4. Increase in vocabulary.
5.Teacher Centered method.
DRAWBACKS
1.Word to word translation sometimes becomes very difficult.
2.This method is difficult to use in multilingual classes.
NAME GAGANDEEP
CLASS M.A 2
RIE CHD.
This comment has been removed by the author.
ReplyDeleteThe Audiolingual Method
ReplyDeleteObjectives
Just as with the Direct Method that preceded it, the overall goal of the Audiolingual Method was to create
communicative competence in learners. However, it was thought that the most effective way to do this
was for students to "overlearn" the language being studied through extensive repetition and a variety of
elaborate drills. The idea was to project the linguistic patterns of the language (based on the studies of
structural linguists) into the minds of the learners in a way that made responses automatic and "habitual".
To this end it was held that the language "habits" of the first language would constantly interfere, and the
only way to overcome ths problem was to facilitate the learning of a new set of "habits" appropriate
linguistically to the language being studied.
Key Features
Here are the key features of the Audiolingual Method, taken from Brown (1994:57) and adapted from Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979).
(1) New material is presented in dialog form.
(2) There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning.
(3) Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.
(4) Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.
(5) There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than
deductive explanation.
(6) Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
(7) There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.
(8) Great importance is attached to pronunciation.
(9) Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.
(10) Successful responses are immediately reinforced.
(11) There is great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances.
(12) There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.
The Audiolingual Method
ReplyDeleteTypical Techniques
Larsen-Freeman, in her book Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching (1986:45-47) provides expanded descriptions of some common/typical techniques closely associated with the Audiolingual Method. The listing here is in summary form only.
(1) Dialog Memorization
(Students memorize an opening dialog using mimicry and applied role-playing)
(2) Backward Build-up (Expansion Drill)
(Teacher breaks a line into several parts, students repeat each part starting at the end of the
sentence and "expanding" backwards through the sentence, adding each part in sequence)
(3) Repitition Drill
(Students repeat teacher's model as quickly and accurately as possible)
(4) Chain Drill
(Students ask and answer each other one-by-one in a circular chain around the classroom )
(5) Single Slot Substitution Drill
(Teacher states a line from the dialog, then uses a word or a phrase as a "cue" that students, when
repeating the line, must substitute into the sentence in the correct place)
(6) Multiple-slot Substitution Drill
(Same as the Single Slot drill, except that there are multiple cues to be substituted into the line)
(7) Transformation Drill
(Teacher provides a sentence that must be turned into something else, for example a question to be
turned into a statement, an active sentence to be turned into a negative statement, etc)
(8) Question-and-answer Drill
(Students should answer or ask questions very quickly)
(9) Use of Minimal Pairs
(Using contrastive analysis, teacher selects a pair of words that sound identical except for a single sound that typically poses difficulty for the learners - students are to pronounce and differentiate the two words)
(10) Complete the Dialog
(Selected words are erased from a line in the dialog - students must find and insert)
(11) Grammar Games
(Various games designed to practice a grammar point in context, using lots of repetition.
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
ReplyDeleteThere has been a recognized approach to language teaching, generally accepted as the norm and viewed as essential in order to be considered a good teacher, that is the Communicative Approach or Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). Its origins can be traced to the 60s, with the changes that occur in the British language teaching tradition. At this point, the foundations of Audiolingualism begin to be questioned, mainly as a result of Chomsky’s cognitivist ideas .
Thus, on the one hand, CLT appears as a reaction to previous methodological principles, such as those underlying Audiolingualism or Grammar-Translation. Scholars such as Candlin or Widdowson now begin to advocate the development of communicative proficiency in the target language, rather than knowledge of its structures, basing themselves on a wide range of theories, ranging from those of the
British linguists Firth and Halliday, to those of the American sociolinguists Hymes, Gumperz, and Labov, to those of the language philosophers Austin and Searle. Another strong contributor to the Communicative Approach is Wilkins, with his proposal of a notional syllabus, incorporated by the Council of Europe in its attempt to facilitate the teaching of European languages in the Common Market. However, none of these ideas would have prospered if they had not been rapidly applied by textbook writers and equally quickly accepted by language teaching specialists, curriculum developers, and even governments. This provided the impetus for CLT, or the notional-functional approach or functional approach, as it is also termed, to become an international movement.
The latter views language learning as the product of the diverse subcompetences comprised within the general concept of communicative competence; that is, not merely linguistic or grammatical competence, as in previous methods, but also sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competences. Hence, the primary goal of CLT is to develop communicative competence, to move “beyond grammatical and discourse elements in communication” and probe the “nature of social, cultural, and pragmatic features of language” (Brown, 1994: 77).
Consequently, learners are expected, not so much to produce correct sentences or to be accurate, but to be capable of communicating and being fluent. Classroom language learning is thus linked with real-life communication outside its confines, and authentic samples of language and discourse or contextualized chunks rather than discrete items are employed. Students are hence equipped with tools for producing unrehearsed language outside the immediate classroom.
GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
ReplyDeleteGrammar translation was the offspring of German scholarship, the object of which was “to know everything about something rather than the thing itself”. Grammar Translation maethod was in fact first known in United States as the Prussian Method.
METHOD
1.Use of mother tongue.
2.Vocabulary items are taught in the form of word lists.
3.Elaborate explanations of grammar.
4.Focus on the morphology and syntax.
5.Reading of difficult texts early in the course.
ADVANTAGES
1.Translation is the easiest and shortest way of explaining meaning of words and phrases.
2.Learners have no difficulties to understand the lesson as it is carried out in the mother tongue.
3.It is a labor-saving method as the teacher carries out everything in the mother tongue.
4.The first language is maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the second language.
DISADVANTAGES
1.Speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative output was missing from the curriculum.
2.Students lacked an active role in the classroom.
3.Very little attention is paid to communication.
4.Very little attention is paid to content.
5.Translation is sometimes misleading.
Because of all these disadvantages, instructors tried to find better ways to remedy the pitfalls of the grammar translation method. The Direct Method was the answer.
DIRECT METHOD
The Direct Method, also called Natural Method, was established in Germany and France around 1900.According to Franke, a language could best be taught by using it actively in the class room. Rather than using analytical procedures thst focus on explanation of grammar rules in class room teachibg.
METHOD
1.Translation is completely banished from any classroom activity. Classroom activities are carried out ONLY in the target language.
2.Use of chain activities accompanied by verbal comments like: I go to the door. I open the door. I close the door. I return to my place. I sit down. (called the Gouin series)
3.Use of realia to teach concrete vocabulary. Abstract vocabulary is taught through association if ideas.
4.Emphasis is put on correct pronunciation and grammar.
5.Teaching through modeling and practice.
6.The teaching techniques rely mostly on reading aloud, question answer exercise, self correction, conversation practice, fill-in-the-blank exercise, dictation and paragraph writing.
ADVANTAGES
1.It is a natural method which teaches language the same way the mother tongue is acquired. Only the target language is used and the learning is contextualized.
2.Its emphasis on speech made it more attractive for those who have needs of real communication in the target language.
3.It was one of the first methods to introduce the teaching of vocabulary through realia
DISADVANTAGES
1.It requires teachers who are native speakers.
2.It is largely dependent on teacher’s skill, rather than on textbook
3.It is time consuming.
PALLAVI VERMA
M.A. II
R.I.E.
General goal of CLT
ReplyDeleteThe general goal of CLT can be viewed in two ways, since, as Howatt (1984: 279) points out, it has both a “weak” and a “strong” version. The weak version “stresses the importance of providing learners with opportunities to use their English for communicative purposes and, characteristically, attempts to integrate such activities into a wider program of language teaching”. On the other hand, the strong version “advances the claim that language is acquired through communication”, so that language ability is developed through activities simulating target performance and which require learners to do in class exactly what they will have to do outside it.
At the level of language theory, the Communicative Approach is based, in line with what we have already mentioned, on Hymes’ and Canale and Swain’s view of communicative competence, on Halliday’s theory of language functions, and on Widdowson’s view of the communicative acts underlying language ability.
In turn, this method’s theory of learning has a much less solid foundation. Nevertheless, according to Richards and Rodgers (2001), three main principles can be inferred from CLT practices:
1. The communication principle: Learning is promoted by activities involving real communication.
2. The task principle: Learning is also enhanced through the use of activities in which language is employed for carrying out meaningful tasks.
3. The meaningfulness principle: The learning process is supported by language which is meaningful to the student. Activities should consequently be selected according to how well they involve the learner in authentic and meaningful language use.
Much more discussion has been devoted to syllabus design in CLT, as it is central to this method. One of the first models to be set forth is Wilkins’ notional syllabus, which specifies notional or semantic-grammatical categories (such as time, sequence, quantity, notion, location, or frequency) and communicative function categories (for instance, requests, denials, offers, or complaints). The Council of Europe builds on this proposal and develops a syllabus including objectives, situations, functions, notions, and vocabulary and grammar. The result is Van Ek and Alexander’s Threshold Level English (1980). Further designs have since then been developed, such as task-based syllabuses or the movement in favor of the abolition of the concept of syllabus.
Such syllabus types are implemented through a series of clear-cut activities and materials. The former, according to Littlewood (1981) are of two main kinds. One of them involves functional communication activities, where the information-gap principle is the basis for comparing pictures, working out sequences of events, discovering missing features in a map or picture, giving instructions, following directions, or problem-solving. The other consists of social interaction activities, based, as Nunan (1991a: 279) puts it, on the emphasis placed by CLT on “learning to communicate through interaction in the target language”. They encompass conversation and discussion sessions, dialogues and role plays, simulations, or debates.
In turn, materials are, in Richards and Rodgers’ view (2001), of three major types: text-based (e.g. textbooks), task-based (relying on jigsaw or information-gap principles), and realia (here, we are referring to authentic materials, taken from “real life” and brought into the classroom, such as signs, magazines, newspapers, maps, pictures, graphs, charts, or even objects).
Teacher’s role in CLT
ReplyDeleteOne of the teacher’s roles is obviously to act as a guide during the afore-mentioned activities. But (s)he equally fulfills other extremely relevant ones. Among them, we
can distinguish those of independent participant within the group; organizer of resources and resource him/herself; researcher and learner; needs analyst in order to cater adequately for the students’ necessities; counselor, much in the way advocated by Community Language Learning; or group process manager. However, perhaps the most outstanding function of the instructor is to facilitate and provide opportunities for communicative interaction between all classroom participants, always, if possible, in the target language.
Learner’s role in CLT
The learner role is important as he becomes a central and active member in the learning process. (S)he must negotiate, interact, and cooperate with other participants and should be an important contributing element to classroom learning. In other words, teaching becomes learner-centered.
How can such an influential method in the history of language teaching be appraised? For many years – even decades – CLT is considered a panacea. It appeals to those who see a more humanistic, interactive, and communicative approach to teaching. Ur (1996: 6) perfectly sums up the general feeling: “The coming of the communicative approach represented for those of us involved in teaching at the time a healthy revolution, promising a remedy to previous ills: objectives seemed more rational, classroom activity became more interesting and obviously relevant to learner needs”.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD AND COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING METHOD
ReplyDeleteThe audio lingual method, or the Army method, or also the New key, is the mode of language instruction based on behaviourist ideology, which professes that certain traits of living things could be trained through a system of reinforcement. The instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. There is no explicit grammar instruction everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construction untill they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output.
The communicative language teaching is am approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes communication or interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. The clt was the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with earlier Grammer Translation and Audio Lingual Methods, where students were nott learning enough realistic, socially necessary language. Therefore they became interested in the development of communicative style teaching in the 1970s, focussing on authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another. The goal of clt is of creating communicative competence in the learners. It makes use of real life situations.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD AND COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING METHOD
ReplyDeleteThe CLT and ALM differ from various aspects. Basic differences as presented by Finocchiaro and Brumfit(1983) are given below:
Meaning and structure
CLT: Meaning is paramount.
ALM: Attends to structure and form more than meaning.
Context
CLT: Contextualization is a basic premise.
ALM: Language items are not necessarily contextualized.
Learning objectives
CLT: Language learning is learning to communicate.
ALM: Language Learning is learning structures, sounds or words.
Goal
CLT: Effective communication is sought.
ALM: Mastery or "overlearning" is sought.
Drilling
CLT: Drilling may occur, but peripherially.
ALM: Drilling is a central technique.
Pronunciation
CLT: Comprehensible pronunciation is sought.
ALM: Native-speaker-like pronunciation is sought.
Grammatical explanation
CLT: Any device which helps the learners is accepted - varying according to their age, interest, etc.
ALM: Grammatical explanation is avoided.
STAGE OF COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES
CLT: Attempts to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning.
ALM: Communicative activities only come after a long process of rigid drills and exercises.
Native language
CLT: Judicious use of native language is accepted where feasible.
ALM: The use of the learners' native language is forbidden.
Translation
CLT: Translation may be used where learners need or benefit from it.
ALM: Translation is forbidden at early levels.
Reading and writing
CLT: Reading and writing can start from the first day, if desired.
ALM: Reading and writing are deferred until speech is mastered.
Teaching Patterns
CLT: The target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of struggling to communicate.
ALM: The target linguistic system will be learned through the overt teaching of the patterns of the system.
Competence
CLT: Communicative competence is the desired goal.
ALM: Linguistic competence is the desired goal.
Language variation
CLT: Linguistic variation is a central concept in materials and methods.
ALM: Varieties of language are recognized but not emphasized.
Sequencing
CLT: Sequencing is determined by any consideration of content function, or meaning which maintains interest.
ALM: The sequence of units is determined solely on principles of linguistic complexity.
Error
CLT: Language is created by the individual often through trial and error.
ALM: "Language is habit" so error must be prevented at all costs.
Accuracy
CLT: Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal: accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context.
ALM: Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary goal.
Intrinsic motivation
CLT: Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in what is being communicated by the language.
ALM: Intrinsic motivation will spring from an interest in the structure of the language.
Teacher's function
CLT: Teachers help learners in any way that motivates them to work with the language.
ALM: The teacher controls the learners and prevents them from doing anything that conflict with the theory.
Interaction
CLT: Learners are expected to interact with other people, either in the flesh, through pair and group work, or in their writings.
ALM: Learners are expected to interact with the language system, embodied in machines or controlled materials.
Learner Language
CLT: The teacher cannot know exactly what language the learners will use.
ALM: The teacher is expected to specify the language that learners are to use.
Teachers' responsibility
CLT: The teachers assume a responsibility for determining and responding to learner's language need.
ALM: The teachers have no responsibility to determine learner's language need.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD AND COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING METHOD
ReplyDeleteCommunicative language teaching often uses a functional-notional syllabus. A notional-functional syllabus is more a way of organizing a language learning curriculum than a method or an approach to teaching. On the other hand, Audiolingualism is a linguistic, or structure based approach to language teaching. The starting point is a linguistic syllabus which contains the key items of phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language arranged according to their order of presentation.
Instructional materials:
In communicative language teaching, instructional materials have the primary role of promoting communicative language use. In audio-lingual method, instructional materials assist the teacher to develop language mastery in the learner.
SUSHMITA GAUR
MA(ENG) SEM-IV
DAV COLLEGE (SEC-10)
Dear Students
ReplyDeleteGreat work. Keep it up.
However please post under appropriate subtitles on the right side of the blog.
Regards
Anil Sarwal
METHODS OF TEACHING ENGLISH
ReplyDeleteINTRODUCTION
The task of methodology is to enhance the process of teaching English by empowering and facilitating teachers to work proficiently. Teaching involves a continuous analysis of one’s own work, the experiences of other teachers and the search for new means to improve teaching.
When teaching a foreign language a teacher must think about the specific qualities offered to students of a certain mother tongue. That means that the methodology of teaching English has to take into account the problems posed by the English language for the students who will learn it.
The methodology of teaching English stands in relation with several challenges or problems:
1.What to teach? That means the amount of knowledge, skills and habits that students have to obtain within the process of learning the language.
2.What are the aims of teaching? When a teacher is sure of the aim of teaching, he/she will have the easiness of reaching the intended goal.
3.How to teach? In this case one can call to mind the principles upon which teaching of English is based, the means, methods, fashion and tactics used in teaching in order to achieve the required final completion. The answers to these questions define the echelon of methodology as a science. As a consequence it determines the nature of the problems to be dealt with.
For successful teaching, teachers are required several initiatives. The teacher has:
> To awaken and develop the potentiality and ability of students for studying.
> To help students develop habits through frequent repetition.
> To inspire, to kindle the interest of the student in studying.
>Also, the teacher should know how to go from easy stages to more difficult ones.
These area few of ideas of language teaching set forth by H.E.Palmer that have proved to be sound and effective even today. And as Robert Lado emphasized, when teaching English one should be aware of the following principles:
> Speech before writing.
> The development of habits by means of pattern practice.
> The cultural approach. This last one principle is of great importance as it means the
understanding of language in terms of indigenous meaning.
(MANDEEP)
A HISTORICAL OUTLINE OF LANGUAGE TEACHING
ReplyDeleteThe history of education must have a great future. However, if we ignore the past we will not understand the present or hold a view for the future.(1)
1. THE BEGINNINGS
The teaching of foreign languages started from the practice developed during centuries in teaching Latin and Greek in England and Europe. The textbooks used in the Middle Ages for
teaching classical languages were based merely on the grammars of Donatus and Priscianus. Aelius Donatus was a Roman grammarian and teacher of rhetoric who lived in the middle of the 4th
century. His well-known work the Ars grammatica (elements of grammar) was the standard Latin grammar during the Middle Ages. Priscianus too, was a grammarian from Mauritania who taught
Latin in Constantinople in the 6th century.His Commentari grammatici was a standard text and it was written in 18 books, while Aeneid, another book was a treatise on accents and a work on the declensions of nouns. He translated into Latin precepts of the Greeks that seemed suitable. He frequently cited from Virgil Cicero, Plautus and Juvenal. His teaching of grammar was written in the form of question and answer of the first twelve lines of the Aeneid. .
In 1199 Alexander de Villa Dei, grammarian and mathematician, versified the grammar of Priscianus. He published 2645 verses called Doctrinale, perhaps one of the most comprehensive treatments of syntax and grammar. For centuries these 1645 verses were the only textbook. Alexander de Villa Dei clarified and made understood the direct translation of the Hebrew Old Testament into Latin. This translation called Vulgate Bible made the scriptures available to Latin speaking people in Europe.
(Mandeep)
Good work Mandeep. Please add your posts by clicking on the suitable subtitles on the right.
DeleteDuring Renaissance book printing brought about new tendencies in teaching of languages.During Henry the VIII th, for instance, grammar was taught in schools, however during his reign. Roger Ascham (1515-1568) introduced a new concept in the field of teaching. He was a Yorkshire scholar and didactic writer and Princess Elisabeth’s tutor of Latin and Greek. In his view, grammar was to be taught through translation and version and not in isolated paradigms. To him grammar-translation was a means of strengthening mental attitude and discipline.
ReplyDelete2.THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION METHOD
Modern foreign languages were studied in the grammar-based format the same way Latin had been taught previously. This method dominated foreign language studies for over 300 years.
According to the grammar-translation method the language is a synthesis of words arranged in sentences according to different rules of different languages. Students were supposed to learn
words and grammatical rules and construct sentences based on these. The words were grouped in lists and the rules were memorized in a strict order. This system of learning a language was very rigid. Learning in this way students were not able to embrace the variety and richness of the spoken language. When the student was faced with the real spoken language, quite different from the artificially built sentences he had been accustomed to, he was at a complete loss. Also in the 16th century, a first grammar of English as a foreign language appeared. It was entitled Le Maistre d’Escole Angloise and was written by James Bellot. It contains familiar
dialogues for the instruction in the English language. Another work of the same kind was Grammaire Angloise published in 1633 (1662 according to Albert H. Marckwardt in Old Paths and
New Directions in Teaching English by George Mason.) These authors brought notes of modernity concerning correct pronunciation and dialogues. They no longer follow the path of synthesis.
3. THE BEGINNINGS OF THE ANALYTICAL METHODS
Next to these works new conceptions of language teaching followed. One of them was the analytical method. The supporters of this method were of the opinion that the teaching of a
language should start with the written text and by its analysis to teach its words and rules. The precursor of this analytical method was Wolfgang Radke or Ratichius (1571-1635) His ideas
surpassed the time he lived in. According to his concept everything had to be taught by logical sequence. The text was first presented, then the grammar. First the example was given, then the rule. There was no memorization. He did not present linguistic explanations either. Instead he presented coherent texts. These texts were first discussed. A detailed analysis followed that lead to learning of words and fundamental grammatical rules. It is obvious that the ability to talk about
grammar and to recite its rules is very different from the ability to speak and understand the language. To him translation is a valuable skill in itself but not a substitute for practicing the language.
(mandeep)
Testing Oral English classes
ReplyDeleteSpeaking is usually the poorest for all the students who study English, but especially poor for the Japanese students. This is the result of the lack of speaking practices and listening practices as well. Listening is always very much connected to speaking. From my own experience in lessons of Oral Testing I have come to the conclusion that a first factor should be easing the anxiety the students have when they listen to a question and especially when they answer. Generally, they do not like to listen to what they say because they believe they are not correct. Secondly, it is very difficult for them to find the words to express themselves.
2.LESSONS OF REINFORCING OF KNOWLEDGE AND OF DEVELOPING SKILLS AND ABILITIES
Such lessons are of special importance. They differ from other types of lessons both in content and structure. No new knowledge is given, yet new skills might be fixed on previously acquired
knowledge. The lessons of reinforcing of knowledge stand closest to lessons of revision of knowledge. They are mainly practical and the greatest stress should be laid on drills. Drills
contribute to the development of abilities and skills in an easy and enjoyable way. Drills are useful because they can be done in chorus and in repeating the response a correct rhythm pattern will be accomplished. Here is an example of a drill on grammar:
a) Have you ever eaten brown bread?
Oh, yes I have. I ate some last week.
In the case of such a drill grammar rules of how to use have + past participle can be reinforced in an easy manner. The students are required to practice through drilling grammatical rules learned previously and also to practice thinking and speaking in English.
No doubt, such pattern practice can go on and on and the longer the drills the more chances for building fluency when speaking English. After all students are required to know how to say in an easy way a certain statement and oral repetitions like these are of great help. I also believe that such kind of drilling is more important than for example revisions of theoretical parts of grammar.
Instead of asking or again explaining to students “How is have + participle formed? Give Examples”, drilling the have + past participle is more practical and enjoyable. The teacher
indicates the cue and the students place it in sentences.
3.COMBINED LESSONS
A frequently used lesson is the combined lesson. Within such a lesson several educative assignments are achieved. For example:
> Checking the knowledge
> Teaching new material
> Developing skills and abilities
A combined lesson offers possibilities of varying the activities in class. However, such lessons
because of the conventional sequence are not expected to give good results. Students become bored by the three stages, as they know exactly what would follow next. Knowledge cannot be acquired
without stirring the attention and imagination of the students present in class. Skills cannot be developed without active training done in an interesting way. A successful class is that in which all students work assiduously.In this case verification is no longer a separate part of the lesson; it lasts throughout the whole period and it is blended with the acquisition of new knowledge. Fixation becomes the main element of the lesson and it is closely connected with the communication of the knew knowledge. Students are actively involved in the class work instead of being passive in class.(Such kind of combined classes were popular in the sixties in an English class in Romania.)
(mandeep)
6.NEW TENDENCIES IN TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES
ReplyDeleteDuring the whole 20th century new theories appeared. Especially the period from second half of the 20th century, from the 50’s to 80’s has been known as the Age of Methods. Numerous methods in
Europe and the USA came forth. They were acknowledged as Silent Way, Total Physical Response, Suggestopedia, The Natural Approach, Community Language Learning, and Audio Lingual
Approach.
TYPES OF ENGLISH LESSONS
The fundamental form of instruction in class is the lesson. Each lesson has its own function. It helps the students with acquiring habits and abilities, with the capacity of understanding, speaking, reading and writing English.
There are lessons that communicate new knowledge (1), lessons of developing skills, and reinforcing the knowledge (2), combined lessons (3) lessons of revision (4) and lessons of verification
the knowledge and appreciation of the effort (5) done by the students.
6.NEW TENDENCIES IN TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES
During the whole 20th century new theories appeared. Especially the period from second half of the 20th century, from the 50’s to 80’s has been known as the Age of Methods. Numerous methods in
Europe and the USA came forth. They were acknowledged as Silent Way, Total Physical Response, Suggestopedia, The Natural Approach, Community Language Learning, and Audio Lingual
Approach.
4.THE INTUITIVE METHOD
Comenius (1592-1671) or Jan Amos Komensky is a name that must be absolutely not forgotten but amply and greatly presented as his ideas meant a real revolution in the domain of teaching
languages. Comenius was born in Moravia in 1592 and he is known today as the father of modern education. Concerning the method of teaching, he advocated that spiritual and emotional growth
were deeply connected to each other. He proposed the intuitive method grounded on direct intuition of objects and pictures. The optic and acoustic elements, the visual and auditory stimuli,
the words and images should work together. According to Comenius language should be taught like the native language by thought-provoking conversation. In his book Orbis Pictus, Comenius laid
the foundation of the intuitive teaching of a foreign language. And his intuitive method meant a transition from the obsolete ones to more interesting and effective ones.
(mandeep)
ReplyDelete(mandeep)
6.THE DIRECT METHOD
ReplyDeleteIn the second half of the 19th century polemics concerning the teaching of a foreign language gave birth to the Reform Movement, which comprised ideas of reforming the old-school systems. The teaching of English as a second language represented a main impetus. In the last decades of the 19th century as a consequence of economic problems in Europe more and more people tried to find means of living in the USA, Australia and Canada but especially in the United States of America. Naturally millions had to learn English quickly and at the same time successfully, as a means of communication in the new chosen country. As the old methods were not satisfactory anymore the problem of reforming the teaching of languages became quite important. The generic term of Direct Method became known and the supporters of this method stressed the importance of
acquiring the spoken language. Harold.E.Palmer the well-know linguist must be mentioned, as his approach to teaching English is unique. He pinpointed that grammar is not the best way to teach a language. His structured lessons and conversations were called “oral method”. In his classes he taught English language through oral exercises. He considered that the reading material given in class should consist of dialogues and related texts. All the descriptions and narratives should be easy and natural also interesting.In the meantime, searching for new paths continued. Polemics concerning the teaching of foreign
languages went hand in hand with the idea of reforming the old school systems. In classes mother tongue began to be excluded almost entirely when teaching of English. The conception that
imitating the sounds and uttering the words and sentences as they are heard became far more important. A method that employed no mediation of the mother tongue took ground. In this case as
the mother tongue was completely excluded from teaching, no translation was used. The meaning of words was explained using direct intuition, representation through drawings, pictures that were associated with the foreign word.Abstract notions were explained by paraphrasing, by synonyms or antonyms or simply by deducing the meaning from the text. Correct pronunciation was very important and grammar rules were secondary. Grammar was achieved by practice. The students were given texts and not unconnected sentences to prove certain grammatical rules. As early as 1878 a direct method was applied by M.D. Berlitz and in the 20th century the method was introduced in many schools. However, employing this method did not first, accustom students to independent work and at the same time the meaning of the words taught this way of direct method was not always understood.
The direct method appeared under several names such as reform method, new method, and oral method.
1.LESSONS OF COMMUNICATION THE KNOWLEDGE
Communication of the new material is the main task in such a lesson. In case of such a lesson the teacher should be aware and take in consideration the fact that there are
difficulties the language presents to the student. Also the teacher has to develop the students’ ability to speak the language and the presentation ought to be done in English. The way to communicate the new knowledge should be done in simple sentences. The new words should be presented with their phonetic transcription and on the way the knowledge should be interwoven
with questions by which new facts are re-enforced.I believe that the study of a foreign language also contributes to the understanding of the culture of that country. Studying literature, customs and traditions of the people who speak that language can attain cultural background. Let us apply the former considerations to a lesson with a theme plan on William Shakespeare. The following example is reconstructed from a manual of English language for grade 10 in Romania in the 60’s. This kind of lesson was especially popular and much
emphasis was made on it.
(mandeep)
1.LESSONS OF COMMUNICATION THE KNOWLEDGE
ReplyDeleteCommunication of the new material is the main task in such a lesson. In case of such a lesson the teacher should be aware and take in consideration the fact that there are
difficulties the language presents to the student. Also the teacher has to develop the students’ ability to speak the language and the presentation ought to be done in English. The way to communicate the new knowledge should be done in simple sentences. The new words should be presented with their phonetic transcription and on the way the knowledge should be interwoven
with questions by which new facts are re-enforced.I believe that the study of a foreign language also contributes to the understanding of the culture of that country. Studying literature, customs and traditions of the people who speak that language can attain cultural background. Let us apply the former considerations to a lesson with a theme plan on William Shakespeare. The following example is reconstructed from a manual of English language for grade 10 in Romania in the 60’s. This kind of lesson was especially popular and much
emphasis was made on it.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PRONUNCIATION IN ENGLISH
Language cannot be separated from sound. I can even say that language is sound. When we talk or when we sing we use our throats to make sounds. The throat is the center of creating the sound. Unless we are able to make sounds and to hear them properly we cannot communicate in a language, even if that is the mother tongue or a foreign tongue.
The pronunciation of the sounds in a language includes stress, rhythm and intonation. Each language has its own specific pronunciation system. In early childhood it is not difficult for us to acquire the specific intonation ad pronunciation of our native tongues. We need no formal
instruction. However, it is quite different with a foreign language we want to master. The difficulty starts when the learner of a second language unconsciously passes the sounds the rhythm and intonation of his native language to the new language he/she is learning.
Some sounds are similar in two languages and so they will be easily acquired. Other sounds will need more attention and so they will have to be extensively practiced until they become habits. The proper learning of pronunciation forms the basis for further success in mastering English. The teaching of pronunciation requires on the part of the teacher several examinations and analysis.
(mandeep)
Grammar-Translation Method
ReplyDeleteIt was first known in United States as the Prussian Method.
This method is a way of studying a language that approaches the language first through detailed analysis of its grammar rules,followed by application of this knowledge to the task of translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language.
Important features of Grammar-Translation Method
teacher must know both the languages.
memorisation:grammar rules are to be memorised.
expansion of vocabulary.
writing and comprehension are taught and tested.
meanings are made clear by using mother tongue of the learner.
spoken aspect is not stressed;only reading aloud is encouraged.
Techniques used in Grammar-Translation Method
learners translate a reading passage from L2 i.e TARGET LANGUAGE into L1 i.e their MOTHER TONGUE.Passage is mainly from L2.
to test the understanding of given passage learners are asked comprehension questions.
Learners are asked to find antonyms synonyms in the reading passage from given one set of words
Grammer rules are presented with examples
Excercises are given. eg.Fill in the blanks with articles,adverbs or conjunctions.
Learners are asked to memorise the gramnatical rules & words.
Learners are asked to use words in sentences of their own.
Main aim of Grammer-Translation method is-to tach learners more about target language but not how to use it.
Drawbacks of the grammer-translation method
Translation excercises are mostly sentence based and not text based
Spoken aspect is neglected.
Exact translation becomes difficult in areas like culture,religion,food,clothing & festivals.
The method is not interactive & it does not pomote communication in the class.
It is teacher-centred.
Direct method
This method became popular during the beginning of the 20th century.
It is a monolingual method,no based on systematic principles,philosophy or approach.
Principles used in the Direct Method
All classroom instructions are to be given only in L2.
Only day-to-day vocabulary & sentences are to be taught.
Grammar is to be taught inductively.
New teaching points are to be introduced orally.
Both speech & listening comprehension are to be taught.
correct pronunciation isto be emphasised.
Guidelines in the Direct Method
Never explain: act.
Never make a speech: ask questions.
Never imitate mistakes:correct.
Never speak with single words: use sentences.
Never speak too much: make students speak much.
Never use the book: use your lesson plan.
Never go too fast: keep to the speed of the student.
Never speak too slowly or too quickly: speak normally and naturally.
Never be impatient: take it easy.
Techniques used in the Direct Method
Learners read out sections of a passage, play or dialogue loudly.The teacher uses pictures or gestures to make meaning of text clear.The teacher never uses the student's mother tongue.
No translation is used in explaining the text.
Encouragement-Learners are to ask questions and give answers only in English,the Target language.
Exercises like fill-in-the-blanks are given without givingany grammar rules.
Dictation is given after listening practice.
Vocabulary is emphasised over grammar.
Oral commumication is basic.
testing is done both orally and in writing.Interviews may be conducted.
THE DIRECT METHOD CAN BE REGARDED AS THE FIRST LANGUAGE TEACHING METHOD TO HAVE CAUGHT THE ATTENTION OF TEACHERS AND LANGUAGE TEACHING SPECIALISTS.
(SHARANJIT KAUR)
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